Methods and principles in archaeology

Ancient DNA can be loosely described as any DNA recovered from biological samples that have not been preserved specifically for later DNA analyses. Examples include the analysis of DNA recovered from archaeological and historical skeletal material, mummified tissues, archival collections of non-frozen medical specimens, preserved plant remains, ice and permafrost cores, and so on. Unlike modern genetic analyses, ancient DNA studies are characterised by low quality DNA. This places limits on what analyses can achieve. Furthermore, due to degradation of the DNA molecules, a process which correlates loosely with factors such as time, temperature and presence of free water, upper limits exist beyond which no DNA is deemed likely to survive. Current estimates suggest that in optimal environments, i.e environments which are very cold, such as permafrost or ice, an upper limit of between 400,000 and several million years exists. As such, early studies that reported recovery of much older DNA, for example, from Cretaceous dinosaur remains, are unlikely to be accurate, with results stemming from sample or extract contamination, as opposed to authentic extracted DNA. ...more on Wikipedia about "Ancient DNA"

An ancient monument is an early historical structure or monument (e.g., an archaeological site) worthy of preservation and study due to archaeological or heritage interest. ...more on Wikipedia about "Ancient monument"

Association in archaeology refers to a close relationship between two or more objects. Associated objects that can be proved to have been deposited at the same time, through being in the same context, form a genuine or close association. Objects that can only be theorised as being deposited together, either because they were not excavated properly, their excavation records are lost or because they come from similar but different contexts, are said to be in open association. ...more on Wikipedia about "Archaeological association"

In archaeology, culture refers to either of two separate but allied concepts: ...more on Wikipedia about "Archaeological culture"

Archaeological ethics refers to a number of moral issues raised through the study of the material past. ...more on Wikipedia about "Archaeological ethics"

Archaeological field survey is the methodological process by which archaeologists (often landscape archaeologists) collect information about the location, distribution and organisation of past human cultures across a large area (e.g. typically in excess of one ha, and quite often in excess of many sq. km). It may be: (a) intrusive or non-intrusive, depending on the needs of the survey team (and the risk of destroying archaeological evidence if intrusive methods are used) and; (b) extensive or intensive depending on the types of research questions being asked of the landscape in question. Surveys can be a practical way to decide whether or not to carry out an excavation (as a way of recording the basic details of a possible site) and may also be ends in themselves, as they produce important information about past human activities in a regional context. ...more on Wikipedia about "Archaeological field survey"

An archaeological industry is the name given to a consistent range of assemblages connected with a single product, such as the Langdale axe industry. Where the assemblages contain evidence of a variety of items and behaviours, the more correct term is " archaeological culture". ...more on Wikipedia about "Archaeological industry"

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In an archaeological excavation, a plan is a drawn record of features (and artifacts) in the horizontal plane. It can either take the form of a "top-plan", or pre-excavation plan, which is drawn before any features are excavated and can help with the management of the excavation, or of a post-excavaton plan, where excavated features are drawn in three dimensions with the help of drawing conventions such as hachures. Plans can be made of complete sites, trenches or individual features. Their scale is usually 1:50. They are linked to the site recording system by the inclusion of known grid points and height readings, taken with a dumpy level or a total station (see surveying). ...more on Wikipedia about "Archaeological plan"

In archaeology a section is a view of an excavated archaeological trench or feature showing the contents of that feature in the vertical plane, as a cross-section, and thereby illustrating its profile and stratigraphy. This makes it possible to view and interpret the feature as it developed over time. ...more on Wikipedia about "Archaeological section"

An archaeological site is a place (or group of physical sites) in which evidence of past activity is preserved (either prehistoric or historic or contemporary), and which has been investigated using the discipline of archaeology. ...more on Wikipedia about "Archaeological site"

Archaeological theory covers the debates over the practice of archaeology and the interpretation of archaeological results. There is no single theory of archaeology, and even definitions are disputed. Until the mid-20th century and the introduction of technology, there was a general consensus that archaeology was closely related to both history and anthropology. Since then, elements of other disciplines such as geology, physics, chemistry, biology, metallurgy, engineering, medicine, etc, have found an overlap, resulting in a need to revisit the fundamental ideas behind archaeology. ...more on Wikipedia about "Archaeological theory"

In archaeology, an artifact or artefact is any object made or modified by a human culture, and often one later recovered by some archaeological endeavor. Examples include stone tools such as projectile points, pottery vessels such as amphorae, metal objects such as buttons or guns and items of personal adornment such as jewellery and clothing. Other examples include bone that shows signs of human modification, fire cracked rocks from a hearth or plant material used for food. ...more on Wikipedia about "Artifact (archaeology)"

An assemblage is an archaeological term meaning a group of different artefacts found in association with one another, that is, in the same context. Where similar assemblages are found to be consistently present within a limited time period and area, they can be said to represent a culture. Where the content of the assemblages relates only to one product, they are more correctly termed an industry. ...more on Wikipedia about "Assemblage"

In archaeology, a biofact or ecofact is an object, found at an archaeological site and carrying archaeological significance, but (unlike an artifact) not altered by human hands. ...more on Wikipedia about "Biofact"

In anthropology and archaeology, a complex society is a social formation that is otherwise described as a formative or developed state (i.e. a civilisation, to use an old-fashioned term). Social complexity in this sense thus refers typically to political complexity, specifically the presence of a hierarchy in the form of a ruling elite supported by bureaucrats, with associated paraphernalia such as administrative buildings and elite residences in urban or proto-urban population centres. Complex societies under this definition are also agricultural to provide the surplus required to support a social (non-food producing) elite. Explaining the origins of these types of social formations, which appear in many areas of the world, is one of the tasks of archaeology. ...more on Wikipedia about "Complex society"

The context of an event includes the circumstances and conditions which "surround" it; the context of a word, sentence, or longer utterance or text includes the words that "surround" it. ...more on Wikipedia about "Context"

Dendrochronology or tree-ring dating is the method of scientific dating based on the analysis of tree ring growth patterns. This technique was invented and developed during the 20th century originally by A. E. Douglass, the founder of the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research at the University of Arizona. The technique can date wood to exact calendar years. ...more on Wikipedia about "Dendrochronology"

In the field of archaeology a deposit model is a method of identifying the character and degree of survival of buried archaeological remains over a specified area without necessarily excavating the whole area. ...more on Wikipedia about "Deposit model"

Excavation is the best-known and most commonly used technique within the science of archaeology. Individual excavations are normally referred to simply as "digs" by those who participate, this being an over-literal description of the process. An excavation concerns itself with a specific archaeological site or connected series of sites, and may be carried on over a number of years, since the work tends to be seasonal. ...more on Wikipedia about "Excavation"

Geophysical survey is a form of geological or archaeological survey, aimed at confirming ground properties of a site and giving guidance to later excavations where surface signs are obscure. ...more on Wikipedia about "Geophysical survey"

The Harris Matrix or Harris-Winchester Matrix is a relative dating method of recording and interpreting archaeological sites. It was invented in 1973 by Dr. Edward C. Harris during his work at Winchester. He used the laws of superpositoning to develop a diagrammatic way to represent stratigraphic relationships between features. Each numbered context on the site is shown graphically along with its chronological relationship to all the other contexts, where known. ...more on Wikipedia about "Harris matrix" Tell your friends about shortopedia shortopedia

In anthropology and archaeology, homology is a type of analogy whereby two human beliefs, practices or artefacts are separated by time but share similarities due to genetic or historical connections. Specifically in anthropology, a homology is a structure that is shared through descent from a common ancestor. ...more on Wikipedia about "Homology (anthropology)"

Indian sex stone is the American field archeologist's term for a natural rock that is mistaken for an artifact (usually for a preform or bola stone) in the field. Most such mistakes are made by inexperienced field crew members, who learn quickly not to make such errors. The less polite term for such an item is another fucking rock, which is usually abbreviated as AFR. ...more on Wikipedia about "Indian sex stone"

An isotopic signature (also isotopic fingerprint) is a ratio of stable or unstable isotopes of particular elements found in an investigated material. The atomic mass of different isotopes affect their chemical kinetics behavior, leading to natural isotope separation processes. ...more on Wikipedia about "Isotopic signature"

The law of faunal succession holds that different strata contain particular types of fossilised flora and fauna, and that these fossil forms succeed each other in a specific and predictable order that can be identified over wide distances. A fossilised Neanderthal bone will never be found in the same stratum as a fossilised Tyrannosaurus rex, for example. ...more on Wikipedia about "Law of faunal succession"

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