Thermodynamics Thermodynamics Absolute zero is a fundamental lower bound on the temperature of any macroscopic system. It is unachievable in practice but it exists as a limit for real physical phenomena, and it was inferred by extrapolation from kinetic theory, and from other considerations in theoretical physics. One would like to define it as the temperature at which all motion ceases, but even at absolute zero some motion remains due to the requirements of quantum mechanics. Alternate definitions are that absolute zero is the temperature at which no further energy can be extracted from a physical body, or the temperature at which the entropies of perfect crystals vanish, or the temperature at which the entropy change of an adiabatic process vanishes. ...more on Wikipedia about "Absolute zero"
An absorption isotherm is an analytical method for estimating the surface physical and chemical values of materials. ...more on Wikipedia about "Absorption isotherm"
In thermodynamics, the acentric factor is a factor originally used by Pitzer as an expression in an equation for the compressibility factor. It is defined as ...more on Wikipedia about "Acentric factor"
In chemistry and biochemistry, acid dissociation constant, the acidity constant, or the acid-ionization constant (Ka) is a specific type of equilibrium constant that indicates the extent of dissociation of hydrogen ions from an acid. The term [H2O] is omitted from the general equilibrium constant expression. While strong acids dissociate practically completely in solution and consequently have large acidity constants, weak acids do not fully dissociate and generally have acidity constants far less than 1. Because this constant differs for each acid and varies over many degrees of magnitude, the acidity constant is often represented by the additive inverse of its common logarithm, represented by the symbol pKa (similar to the concept of pH, though not related directly). ...more on Wikipedia about "Acid dissociation constant"
Adiabatic flame temperature is the temperature of the products of combustion under constant pressure assuming all energy from the reaction goes only to heating the products and to changing their volume. ...more on Wikipedia about "Adiabatic flame temperature"
The adiabatic index of a gas, is the ratio of its specific heat capacity at constant pressure (CP) to its specific heat capacity at constant volume (CV). It is denoted by the greek letter γ ( gamma) or the greek letter κ ( kappa). ...more on Wikipedia about "Adiabatic index"
An adiabatic invariant in general is a property of motion which is conserved to exponential accuracy in the small parameter representing the typical rate of change of the gross properties of the body. For periodic motion, the adiabatic invariants are the action integrals taken over a period of the motion. These are constants of the motion and remain so even when changes are made in the system, as long as the changes are slow compared to the period of motion. ...more on Wikipedia about "Adiabatic invariant"
In thermodynamics, an adiabatic process is a process in which no heat is gained or lost in the working fluid. For example, there are no chemical processes taking place in the fluid and there is no heat transfer from the environment. The term "adiabatic" describes things that are impermeable to heat transfer; for example, an adiabatic boundary is a boundary that is impermeable to heat transfer and the system is said to be adiabatically (or thermally) insulated. An insulated wall approximates an adiabatic boundary. ...more on Wikipedia about "Adiabatic process"
An aeolipile is a device consisting of an air-tight chamber (usually a sphere or cylinder) with bent or curved pipes projecting from it, through which steam is expelled. The resulting reaction force causes the device to spin. Typically, the water is heated in a basin, which is connected to the rotating chamber by a pair of pipes that also serve as the pivots for the chamber. However, the water may also be heated in the chamber itself as shown in the illustration below. ...more on Wikipedia about "Aeolipile"
In chemistry, Amagat's law ( 1880) states the volume of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of volumes of two gases, if the temperature and the pressure stays the same. ** . ...more on Wikipedia about "Amagat's law"
Everyday ice is a crystal, which means its molecules are lined up in a repeating pattern. Amorphous ice is an amorphous solid form of water, meaning it consists of water molecules that are randomly oriented like the atoms of common glass. Amorphous ice is produced by cooling liquid water very quickly (around 1,000,000 K/s), so the molecules don't have enough time to form a crystal lattice. ...more on Wikipedia about "Amorphous ice"
An Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Source of the Heat which is Excited by Friction, ( 1798), Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society p.102 is a scientific paper by Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford that provided a substantial challenge to established theories of heat and began the 19th century revolution in thermodynamics. ...more on Wikipedia about "An Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Source of the Heat which is Excited by Friction"
Anisothermal is an adjective used to describe a system that is not in thermal equilibrium, i.e. does not have a single fixed temperature. ...more on Wikipedia about "Anisothermal"
An azeotrope is a liquid mixture of two or more components which has a unique constant boiling point. An azeotrope may boil at a higher, lower, or intermediate temperature relative to the constituent liquids, and the liquid retains the same composition as it is boiled. As a consequence, the vapor has the same composition as the liquid and simple distillation will not separate the constituents as it would with most liquid mixtures; to get a higher concentration it is necessary to use azeotropic distillation. ...more on Wikipedia about "Azeotrope"
There are two Bejan numbers (Be) in use, named after Adrian Bejan in two scientific domains: thermodynamics and fluid mechanics. ...more on Wikipedia about "Bejan number"
In zoology, Bergmann's Rule is a principle that correlates environmental temperature with body mass in warm-blooded animals. It asserts that within a species, the body mass increases with latitude and colder climate. Among mammals and birds, individuals of a particular species in colder areas tend to have greater body mass than individuals in warmer areas. For instance, White-tailed Deer are larger in Canada than in the Florida Keys. The rule is named after a nineteenth-century German biologist, Christian Bergmann. Bergmann's rule and Allen's rule are examples of clines frequently seen in mammals. ...more on Wikipedia about "Bergmann's Rule"
Biological thermodynamics (Greek: bios = life and logikos = reason + Greek: thermos = heat and dynamics = power) is the study of energy transformation in the biological sciences. More definitively, biological thermodynamics may be defined as the quantitative study of the energy transductions that occur in and between living organisms, structures, and cells and of the nature and function of the chemical processes underlying these transductions. ...more on Wikipedia about "Biological thermodynamics"
In physics, a black body is an object that absorbs all electromagnetic radiation that falls onto it. No radiation passes through it and none is reflected. Despite the name, black bodies are not actually black as they radiate energy as well. How much electromagnetic radiation they give off just depends on their temperature. Black bodies below around 700K produce very little radiation at visible wavelengths and appear black. Black bodies above this temperature however, start to produce radiation at visible wavelengths starting at red, going through orange, yellow and white before ending up at blue as the temperature increases. ...more on Wikipedia about "Black body"
In physics a special field has been created entirely centered around the thermodynamics of black holes. Within black holes many of the physical laws which we accept should break down, including those of thermodynamics. ...more on Wikipedia about "Black hole thermodynamics"
The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which it can change its state from a liquid to a gas throughout the bulk of the liquid. A liquid may change to a gas at temperatures below the boiling point through the process of evaporation. Any change of state from a liquid to a gas at boiling point is considered vaporization. However, evaporation is a surface phenomenon, in which only molecules located near the gas/liquid surface could evaporate. Boiling on the other hand is a bulk process, so at the boiling point molecules anywhere in the liquid may be vaporized, resulting in the formation of vapor bubbles. ...more on Wikipedia about "Boiling point"
The Boltzmann constant (k or kB) is the physical constant relating temperature to energy. ...more on Wikipedia about "Boltzmann constant"
In physics, the Boltzmann factor is a weighting factor determining the relative probability of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium at a temperature (T). ...more on Wikipedia about "Boltzmann factor"
An ideal Bose gas is a quantum-mechanical version of a classical ideal gas. It is composed of bosons, which have an integral value of spin, and obey Bose-Einstein statistics. The statistical mechanics of bosons were developed by Satyendra Nath Bose for photons, and extended to massive particles by Albert Einstein who realized that an ideal gas of bosons would form a condensate at a low enough temperature, unlike a classical ideal gas. This condensate is known as a Bose-Einstein condensate. ...more on Wikipedia about "Bose gas"
A Bowen ratio is the ratio of energy available for sensible heating to energy available for latent heating. It is calculated by the equation B= Qh/Qe where Qh is sensible heating and Qe is latent heating. ...more on Wikipedia about "Bowen ratio"
The Brayton cycle is a cyclic process generally associated with the gas turbine. Like other internal combustion power cycles it is an open system, though for thermodynamic analysis it is a convenient fiction to assume that the exhaust gases are reused in the intake, enabling analysis as a closed system. It named for George Brayton, and is also known as the Joule cycle. ...more on Wikipedia about "Brayton cycle"
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